What Is Meat

1. MEANING OF THE WORD "MEAT"

Red meat is the collective name for meat that originates from cattle, sheep and pork and its history dates back to 8 000 BC. To supply the world's demand for meat, massive livestock industries developed and production increased. In order to obtain the final product, it has to go through certain processing procedures. Red meat is very versatile and its uses are limitless. To ensure the best quality product, the consumer should follow certain purchasing tips, buy red meat according to its specifications and grades and be aware of meat safety.

If red meat is handled and stored correctly, its shelf life could be prolonged, for example by using the correct packaging, Many religions have certain specifications pertaining to red meat and you can learn more about religious considerations. There are also some serious misconceptions about its nutritious content, and consumers are informed about its health and nutritional highlights and certain medical condition alerts, but with the help of certain lifestyle eating suggestions red meat can become part of your daily diet. Branding is becoming more important in the red meat industry and there are already nine registered brands available.

2. ORIGINS AND HISTORY OF MEAT

Origin

Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Meat consists largely of muscles, but fat and other animal tissue are also considered meat. The most commonly eaten meats in industrialised countries come from animals that are raised for food. These animals - and the meat that comes from them - include cattle (beef and veal), pigs (pork) and sheep (lamb and mutton). The meat from cattle, pigs and sheep are all classified as red meat. There are several different types of red meat. The names for meat from cattle and sheep also indicate the age of the animal from which the meat was taken.

Veal is the flesh of calves less than 14 weeks old. It is light pink and contains little fat. Veal is more tender than beef, and has a milder flavour.

Beef is flesh of full-grown cattle. Most beef sold in shops comes from animals I to 2 years old. Beef is bright red and has white or yellow fat, depending on the food the animal was raised on.

Lamb is the flesh of sheep slaughtered at a young age (younger than 6 months) It is red and has white fat. Lamb has a milder taste than mutton.

Mutton is the flesh of sheep older than 6 months. It has a deep red to purple colour. Mutton has a stronger flavour and a coarser texture than lamb.

Pork is the flesh of pigs. Pork has a light pink colour with white fat. It has a mild taste. Many cured meats, such as ham and bacon are made from pork.

Offal is the general name for various organs and glands of animals. Common offal includes brains, hearts, kidneys, livers and tongues of animals. Other offal includes sweetbreads (thymus gland) and tripe (the lining of the stomach).

History

Originally all meat came from wild animals. Prehistoric people were hunters and gatherers. They gathered fruit, nuts, and berries and hunted animals. Later they learned to tend crops and domesticate animals. Animals were domesticated in Europe as long ago as 8 000 BC. Archaeological evidence shows that pork was being eaten in Egypt as long ago as 3 400 BC, and in China in 2 900 BC. The Bible also refers to "the fatted calf". To supply the world's demand for meat, massive livestock and meat-processing industries have developed. The major livestock industries in the world today involve cattle, sheep and pigs.

Modern livestock are, however, usually very different from the animals of the earlier centuries. Today's domestic cattle are descended from the wild ox, also known as the forest ox. This was a huge animal found all over Europe until about the Middle Ages. Over the following years inbreeding and cross-breeding were used to select and perfect desirable characteristics in cattle. One of the world's largest livestock industries is that of the United States. Cattle did not exist in the Americas until the arrival of the Europeans.

Wild sheep were once found only in parts of Central Asia and North Africa. Today they are found mostly in the temperate regions of both hemispheres. As with cattle, many breeds have been developed to suit particular climates and environmental conditions, and for their particular qualities. Pigs originated in Asia, Europe and Africa.

They are descended from the common wild boar which existed in Europe throughout the Middle Ages. In the 1800s the Chinese pig was introduced to Britain and later on in the century, an Italian type. The Chinese pig tended to be small and white while the Italian was large and black. Most of the modern breeds have a mixture of these characteristics. As with cattle and sheep, pigs were introduced to America and many other parts of the world by explorers and settlers. In South Africa stock-farming is one of the oldest farming industries. It also played an important role in the history and development of our country.

The meat industry in South Africa dates back to as early as the 15th century when the Portuguese bartered copper trinkets and other articles with the Hottentots for the fresh meat which was so necessary on the long voyage to India. When, after a century and a half, the Dutch began their Eastern trade, the Cape of Good Hope became a convenient refreshment station for the Dutch East India Company.

One of Jan van Riebeeck's most important tasks was to obtain fresh meat - first by bartering with Hottentots and then by more civilised trade with the free burghers, who became stock- farmers, moving inland in search of pastures. Today the animal production industry is the largest agricultural industry in South Africa, and still contributed over 40% to the total value of agricultural production. The combined gross producer value of the cattle, small-stock and pig industries was R6 202 million during 2001. In South Africa the average per capita consumption of beef and veal is 12,4 kg/year, the consumption of lamb, mutton and goats meat 3,6 kg/year and pork consumption is 3,2 kg/year. The total average per capita consumption of beef and veal, lamb, mutton and goat's meat and pork was therefore 19,2kg/year.

3. PRODUCTION

South Africa's climate is ideally suited for stock farming, and it is the most viable agricultural activity in a large part of the country. Almost 70% of the 122,3 million hectares of land surface of South Africa are suitable for raising livestock, particularly cattle, sheep, pigs and goats. On primary production level the South African red meat industry has a strong dualistic character, which stems from the past existence of self-governing states of the pre-1994 political dispensation. This has given rise to a large-scale commercial production sector co- existing with a small-scale, so-called communal, production sector in the former self-governing states. The commercial and communal production sectors respectively are also known as the developed and developing sectors.

In 2001 cattle herd numbers in commercial areas amounted to 8,7 million, and in developing areas to 4,7 million. Sheep herd numbers in commercial areas amounted to 25,4 million, and in developing areas to 3,4 million. Herd numbers of pigs amounted to 1,2 million in commercial areas and to 0,3 million in developing areas. South Africa has a well established cattle feedlot sector and an intensive pork production sector included in the commercial sector. The 53 registered SAFA commercial cattle feedlots, which market animals throughout the year, have a standing capacity of 320 000 animals and slaughter around 70% of the commercial sectors annual 2 million cattle slaughterings at registered abattoirs. Feedlots normally buy from extensive cattle farmers weaner calves with live mass of 230 kg and add 105 kg carcase mass through intensive feeding of about 100 days, eventually slaughtering an animal at 215 kg carcase weight. Sow numbers in the intensive pork production sector are estimated at 100 000.

If the national average for the number of pigs slaughtered per sow per year is assumed at 20, pig slaughterings from the commercial sector at registered abattoirs amount to around 1,3 million per annum. In South Africa sheep meat is largely produced extensively. Sheep slaughterings from the commercial sector at registered abattoirs amount to around 4,5 million per annum. It is estimated that 70% of the national sheep herd consists of wool-types. Availability of beef, sheep meat and pork in the formal sector amounts to an average of 475 000 tonnes, 110 000 tonnes and 130 000 tonnes per annum respectively. This is based on an estimated annual slaughter of 1,95 million cattle, 4,50 million sheep and 2,00 million pigs at registered abattoirs. It is further estimated that slaughterings in the informal sector could amount to a further 20 to 25% in the case of cattle, 25 to 30% in the case of sheep and 10% in the case of pigs. South Africa also has a significant goat sector. Of the estimated 6,8 million goats in 2001, 64% are found in the communal areas, resulting in a situation where most goat slaughterings are done informally South Africa is a nett importer of red meat.

Annual imports from outside the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) amount to an average of 20 000 tonnes beef, 30 000 tonnes sheep meat and 8 000 tonnes pork. The dominant exporter to South Africa in the case of beef and pork is the European Union. Almost all sheep meat imports are from Australia and New Zealand.. As far as SACU is concerned, live cattle imports from Namibia amount to an average of 104 198 head per year, while annual live small stock imports amount to 917 576 head. Beef imports from Namibia and Botswana amount to an average of 15 000 tonnes per year.

4. PRODUCTS AVAILABLE AND BASIC MEAT CUTS

BEEF

Few people realize how versatile beef forequarter really is. There are various cuts to choose from - from tender cuts for oven-roasting and grilling, such as the prime rib, to cuts that are less tender but perfect for a variety of stews and braises. The hindquarter is and always will be popular for meat cuts ranging from steaks to pot-roasts to biltong.

Forequarter

Hump

The hump is boneless, varies in size according to beef breed and species and contains abundant intramuscular fat. A hump weighing more than 1,5 kg can be used for a pot roast. It can also be used for making corned beef.

Neck

The neck consists of neck vertebrae surrounded by a lot of meat. It contains a large proportion of white connective tissue, which makes the neck one of the most flavoursome cuts. The yellow connective tissue present must be removed before cooking since it is not tenderised by cooking. Neck slices can be used for braising or casseroles. Cubes (25 mm) are used for stews and pies, while the bones are used for meat stock. Trimmings from the neck are used for mince.

Shin

The shin consists of a large proportion of bone and a lot of white connective tissue which renders the cut tasty. Shin slices are braised or used for soup. Cubes (25 mm) can be cut for a stew and the bones used for meat stock.

Bolo

The bright red muscle layer on top of the bolo is characteristic. The bolo is boneless, has a coarse texture and consists of several muscle layers. The bolo contains very little intramuscular fat. A muscle weighing more than 1,5 kg can be used for a pot roast but must be larded. Cut into thin steaks (3 to 5 mm) to make beef olives for braising or minute steak for frying in shallow fat. Cut into cubes for stewing and use trimmings for mince.

Chuck

The chuck consists of six breastbone vertebrae sawn through, six to seven ribs, shoulder blade, dorsal vertebrae, yellow connective tissue and several muscle layers running in different directions. Debone the chuck. Use the muscle layers above the eye muscle for a roll for pot- roasting or baking in a cooking bag/aluminium foil. Cut the eye muscle near the prime rib into steaks for grilling. Cut into cubes (25 mm) for stewing and into strips 170 mm x 3 mm) for stir-frying. Use the trimmings for mince.

Flat Rib

This cut is flat and contains ribs with two thin muscle layers separated by a layer of connective tissue. Prepare a roll if the whole cut is deboned. Use the bones for meat stock and the portions with bone for a stew such as potjiekos. The meat between the ribs is tender and can be marinated and grilled.

Brisket

The brisket contains a few ribs and the breastbone. The brisket can be divided into the point brisket, mid-brisket and navel-end. The mid-brisket and navel-end can be used to prepare a roll for pot-roasting or baking in aluminium foil or a cooking bag. The point brisket is generally used for making corned beef or a pot roast. Debone the cut and tie it to retain its shape. Pastrami can be prepared by rubbing a pastrami spice mix over pickled meat and then smoking it. The brisket can be sawn into portions for a stew, or slices of brisket can be braised.

Prime rib

The prime rib consists of the dorsal vertebrae, vertebral column, 3 or 4 ribs, the large eye muscle, smaller muscle layers and an even outer fat layer. Whole and with the bone the prime rib can be used for an oven roast. The deboned prime rib is rolled for an oven roast or cut into eye muscle steaks fro grilling. Prime rib steaks can be sawn for grilling.

Hindquarter

Thin flank

The flank consists of the boneless portion and a few ribs referred to as short-ribs. The whole cut is covered with a thick layer of connective tissue which has to be removed before cooking. The thin flank steak is removed from the inner portion of the flank nearest to the leg. Cut the steak 2 mm deep diagonally, marinate and grill. Debone the flank, cut it square and make a roll to pot-roast. The short rib can be cured and boiled or sawn into portions and braised. Marinated short-ribs can be grilled and the trimmings used for mince.

Wing rib

As in the case of the prime rib, the wing rib consists of the vertebral column, 3 or 4 ribs, the large eye muscle and an even outer fat layer. The whole bone-in wing rib can be used for an oven roast. The deboned wing rib can be rolled for an oven roast or cut into eye muscle steaks for grilling. The steaks with bone-in from the wing rib are club steaks and are grilled. The eye muscle can be removed in the natural seams to cut Scotch fillet steaks for grilling.

Sirloin

A feature in the vertebral column with the T-bone. The T-bone is flanked on one side by the eye muscle with its even outer fat layer and on the other by the fillet. The fillet becomes larger towards the rump. The sirloin contains no ribs. The sirloin can be left whole and with the bone in for an oven roast. The sirloin can be deboned and rolled without the fillet for oven-roasting. T-bone steaks are sawn from the loin nearest to the wing rib and grilled. A Porterhouse steak is sawn from loin nearest to the rump. The steak is 50 mm thick and grilled for two persons. The eye muscle can be removed in the natural seams to cut Scotch fillet steaks for grilling. The whole eye muscle of the wing rib and sirloin can be used for an oven roast.

Rump

The rump consists of several loose muscle layers and the large pelvic bone. Part of the fillet is also situated in the rump. The whole rump can be deboned and used for an oven roast. Tie the cut to retain its shape. The loose muscle layers can be trimmed and cut into steaks for grilling. The point rump can be cut into slices for a smaller rump steak. The loose muscle layers can be cut into cubes (25 mm) for kebabs.

Fillet

The fillet is situated inside the carcase alongside the vertebral column from the wing rib to the rump. The fillet is protected by the layer of kidney fat. The fillet is boneless and without fat and the most tender cut in the carcase. The whole fillet can be oven-roasted if it is barded or basted. Fillet steaks can be cut for grilling. Several other steaks such as fillet minute and chateau braid can also be cut.

Topside

A feature is the surrounding thick half moon-shaped fat layer. Just below the fat layer is a thin flat muscle and below that two thicker muscle layers. The topside is boneless and has a coarse texture but is tasty. The outer thin muscle layer can be used for a roll for pot-roasting. The two thicker muscle layers can be separated in the natural seams and used for pot roasts. Thin slices (3 to 5 mm) can be cut from the thicker muscle layers for beef olives or minute steaks. Cut cubes for a stew and use the trimmings for mince. Biltong is also cut from the topside.

Silverside

The silverside consists of three parallel muscles, i.e. the round muscle, the rectangular muscle and a small triangular muscle. The round muscle is covered with a silvery layer of connective tissue. The meat of the silverside has a coarse texture. Separate the muscle layers in the natural seams. Remove the outer layer of connective tissue around each muscle. Use the whole muscle for pot-roasting. Cure and smoke the round muscle for cold meat. Thin slices (3 to 5 mm) can be cut for shallow-fat frying or beef olives. Cut cubes (25 mm) for a stew and use the round muscle for biltong.

Aitchbone

The aitchbone forms part of the silverside, contains the tail-bone and has a coarse texture. The aitchbone is kept whole and used for pot-roasting or corned beef. Cut thin slices (3 to 5 mm) to make beef olives for a stew.

Thick Flan

The thick flank consists of three muscles. The inner muscle is the most tender and is also called the mock fillet. Use the thick flank for a pot roast. The middle, most tender muscle can be cut into steaks for Holland steak. Cut into cubes (25 mm) for a stew.

LAMB

Mutton and lamb differ from each other in that lambs are slaughtered very young and before much connective tissue has developed, hence their meat is very tender. Mutton, having more connective tissue, is less tender but also very tasty on account of its higher proportion of connective tissue. During cooking, the white connective tissue (collagen) is converted into gelatine which makes mutton as tender and tasty as lamb.

Neck

The neck consists of neck vertebrae, yellow connective tissue and meat rich in white connective tissue. Remove the yellow connective tissue since it does not soften during cooking. The white connective tissue imparts flavour to the neck slices. The meat has a coarse texture. Slices can be sawn for potjiekos or a braised dish. Deboned, stuffed and rolled for pot- roasting. Cut cubes (25 mm square) from the deboned neck for stews or pies. The bones are used for preparing meat stock and trimmings used for making mince.

Thick rib

The thick rib consists of a few vertebrae, 5 to 6 ribs, the shoulder blade and an even fat covering. If the blade is removed whole, the upper muscle layer and the fat layer of the thick rib are removed together with the shoulder blade. Use for thick rib chops if the shoulder blade has net been removed whole. Lamb chops are grilled and mutton thick rib chops are braised. A cushion can be prepared from the deboned thick rib is the shoulder has not been removed whole. A stuffing can be used to fill the cavity where the shoulder blade has been removed. A cushion of lamb is oven-roasted and a cushion of mutton pot-roasted. Cubes (25 mm square) can be cut from mutton for stew and from lamb for sosaties/kebabs for grilling. Trimmings may be used for mince.

Shoulder

The shoulder blade, Marrowbone and shin bone are situated in the shoulder. Attached to the shoulder blade is a softer cartilage section. The shoulder has an even fat covering. If removed whole, the upper section of the thick rib is included. Deboned and rolled, the lamb shoulder can be oven-roasted and the mutton shoulder pot-roasted. Debone and butterfly for oven-roasting or grilling over the coals. Cubed (25 mm square) for sosaties or kebabs. Use shin sawn into slices for stews or potjiekos.

Breast and flank

The breast is sawn off with the flank for convenience. The cut contains ribs in a triangular shape where the flank joins the breast. A large proportion of white connective tissue occurs in the flank and the meat has a coarse texture. The whole cut can be deboned, cut into a rectangular shape and used for a roll. Roll of lamb or mutton can be pot roasted or cooked in a cooking bag or aluminium foil. Salted ribs can be prepared from the breast portion. Cube (25 mm) for casseroles and stews. The breast with bone can be sawn into portions for stews. Debone lamb breast and cut into 25-mm wide strips for concertina kebabs.

Rib

The rib consists of vertebrae, ribs , single eye muscle and an uneven fat covering. The meat has a fine texture. Saw the triangular bone off. The rib ends of a whole rib of lamb can be frenched* and used for various oven roasts such as a rack or crown roast. Rib chops can be sawn for grilling. Debone and roll for an oven roast. (French* - remove all the cartilage, fat and meat from the first 2,5 cm of the rib ends.)

Loin

A feature of the loin is the T-shaped vertebrae with the fillet and eye muscle on either side of the T-bone. If the loin is removed before the carcase is halved, this cut is known as saddle. Oven-roast the saddle with or without bone. Saw saddle chops for grilling. Debone and roll the loin for an oven roast. Saw loin chops for grilling. Debone, roll and secure the loin with bamboo skewers at 25-mm intervals. Cut through meat between the skewers to make Saratoga chops for grilling. Remove eye muscle, tie with string at 25- mm intervals, cut through meat between string to make noisettes.

Chump

The chump contains the pelvis bone with a large proportion of meat. The chump has several muscle layers. Leave the chump whole or debone and secure it for an oven roast of lamb and mutton. Chops can also be sawn for grilling.

Leg and shin

The leg contains the pelvic and Marrowbone. The shin bone is situated in the shin, which consists of meat with a coarse texture and a high proportion of white connective tissue. The leg can be kept whole for pot-roasting with or without the bone. The leg of lamb is very small. Leave the chump on the leg for a long leg and oven-roast. The long leg can be deboned to make a roll or for butter-flying. The long leg can also be used for preparing a ham known as a Leipoldt ham. Cubes (25 mm square) can be cut for sosaties or kebabs. Shin is sawn into slices for braises and stews.

PORK

Pork is tender meat derived from animals of approximately six months. Only carcases of 21 kg to 55 kg are made available to meat traders for selling. Heavier and older carcases are marked as "sausager" pork or "rough" pork and used for processed products such as sausage. "Suckling pigs" are piglets of less than three months of age weighing less than 20 kg and are popular fare for Christmas and special occasions.

Shank and trotter

The shank contains a large proportion of bone. The meat contains a lot of white connective tissue which makes it very tasty. Clean the trotters and use for brawn. The shank can be used whole for pickling and curing (Eisbein). It can also be sliced for braised dishes.

Belly

This part is boneless with a thin muscle layer and a lot of white connective tissue. Cut into a rectangular shape and make a roll for pot-roasting or bake in a cooking bag or aluminium foil. Mince and mix with beef mince for mince dishes. Cure and smoke the belly for making streaky bacon. Remove rind, cut into 25-mm thick strips and use for concertina kebabs.

Breast

This cut contains the breastbone, rib ends and a portion of the Marrowbone. The Marrowbone can be marinated and grilled as "spare ribs". Cut into portions for a stew or potjiekos. Debone the cut, cut into rectangular shape and make a roll for pot- roasting. Debone and cure the breast, cut into thin (3-mm) strips for uncured bacon ("green bacon"). Cure and smoke it to make bacon. A deboned breast can be cut into 25-mm thick strips for concertina kebabs. Cut into cubes for a stew and use trimmings for mince.

Thick rib

The neck of the pig carcase is too short to remove separately and is removed with the thick rib. The thick rib consists of the shoulder blade, vertebrae with dorsal vertebrae and 5 to 7 ribs. Debone the thick rib. The cavity where the shoulder blade has been removed can be filled with a stuffing to make a cushion for oven-roasting. The thick rib can be sawn into chops for grilling (thick rib chops). Strips (70 mm x 3 mm) can be cut for a stir-fry. Rib A feature of the rib is the large eye muscle, 7 to 9 ribs, vertebrae and an even fat layer with rind. Have the triangular vertebral bone sawn off (chined*). French** the rib ends and use the cut for a rack. It can also be used to a make a crown roast, candle roast or guard of honour. (Chine* - saw off the triangular bone of the vertebral column. French** - remove all the connective tissue, fat and flesh from the first 2,5 cm of the rib ends.

Loin

The loin contains the vertebral column, a T-shaped bone, a large eye muscle and the smaller fillet. The loin contains no ribs. The loin can be removed before the carcase is halved. This cut is referred to as a saddle. Oven-roast whole, or debone, tie and oven-roast, or saw into saddle chops. Debone, tie and oven-roast the loin, or secure with skewers at 25-mm intervals, cut through the meat between the skewers and grill the chops. These are referred to as Saratoga chops.

Chump

The chump contains the pelvic bone and several muscle layers. The chump can be kept whole and oven-roasted. If the chump is deboned and tied previously, carving will be easier. Chump chops can be cut for grilling. The chump can be left on the leg to make ham.

Leg

The leg consists of marrow bones and several muscle layers. The leg from larger carcases can be divided into 3 separate cuts, i.e. the silverside, topside and thick flank. Use whole, or deboned, and tied for oven-roasting. Separate the muscles from each other. Cut 2-3 mm slices (Schnitzels) from the rectangular muscle in the topside for shallow fat frying. Cut thick flank into strips (70 mm x 3 mm) for stir-fry dishes or cubes (25-mm square) for kebabs. Leave the silverside whole for an oven roast.

Cure and offal

Until recently it was part of tradition to slaughter a sheep or goat for the pot at least once a week. In those days, however, offal was still much in demand but today it is virtually unknown, particularly by the younger generation. This is unfortunate because not only is offal gourmet food but it also has a high nutritional value. What is offal? Everything removed during the dressing (slaughtering) of a carcase is regarded as offal. This includes the brains, tongue, trotters, tripe, kidneys, liver, sweetbreads and heart.

Liver

Liver is a good source of complete proteins and is rich in vitamin A and the B-complex vitamins as well as mineral salts such as iron, calcium, phosphorus, copper and iodine.

Lamb's liver:

It is fairly readily available. Lamb's liver has a fine texture and is ideal for frying and grilling. Dark-coloured lamb's liver often comes from older sheep and is less tender.

Calf's liver:

This liver is very tender but very scarce. It is suitable for grills and fried dishes.

Pig's liver:

Pig's liver has a stronger flavour and is generally used for pâtés and terrines. It can also be used in grills, casserole dishes or in sausage meat and meat loaves.

Ox liver:

Ox liver is freely available. This liver is less tender and has a strong flavour. Soak ox liver in salt water or milk for 20 minutes to remove some of the strong flavour. Ox liver can be used in stews, braised and casserole dishes. Ox liver is used in liver patties, liver-and-beef pies and many other well-known dishes.

Kidneys

Kidneys are considered by some to be the choicest offal item. Ox, calf and lamb's kidneys are protected in the carcase by a large amount of white fat, known as the kidney fat. Pig's kidneys have no kidney fat.

Lamb's kidneys:

The shape of lamb's kidneys differs from that of ox and calf's kidneys. Lamb's kidneys can be fried or grilled successfully.

Ox kidneys:

These kidneys are the largest of all the kidney types (approximately 750 g) and have a strong flavour. Ox kidneys are usually cubed and used in stews and braises.

Calf kidneys:

Calf's kidneys are scarce and resemble ox kidneys, but are smaller. These kidneys are tender and have a less pronounced flavour than ox kidneys. Calf's kidneys can be fried or used in stews or braises.

Pigs kidneys:

Pig's kidneys resemble lamb's kidneys but are larger, less tender and have a stronger flavour. They can be fried, grilled or used in stews and casseroles.

Tongue

Ox tongue is most popular because of its fine texture and excellent taste. Lamb's tongues are delicious, small and tender but very scarce. Lamb's tongues are sold with the head as lamb's or sheep's offal. Lamb's and pig's tongues are usually served whole while ox tongue is served sliced. Tongue may be served fresh or pickled.

Sweetbreads

Sweetbreads are the thymus glands of a young animal, with calf's sweetbreads being the best. Fresh sweetbreads are soft and white or pink in colour.

Brains

The delicate flavour and soft texture of brains make them the gourmet's favourite. Fresh brains are glossy and a greyish-pink. If removing them from the head yourself take care to retain the shape and not to damage the two lobes. .

Caul fat

Caul fat is the lacy fat that lines an animal's stomach. Pig's caul is commonly used to line terrines or to wrap around sausages and patties. If the caul fat is too stiff to handle, soak it in lukewarm water until it is pliable. Caul fat can also be rendered and used as a baste for oven- roasts.

Tripe

This is the stomach tissue of cud-chewing animals. Tripe has a very coarse texture and is fairly tough and, therefore, requires long, slow cooking. Traditionally the stomach (tripe) is curried with trotters.

Oxtail

Oxtail is perhaps the most popular of the animal extremities. Long, slow cooking is required to make tasty stews and soup. One oxtail will usually provide two to three servings.

Trotters/cow heels

Usually cow heels and sheep's trotters are used for preparing traditional curried tripe and brawn.

Fat

Take clean fat (for example, caul fat) or pork speck and cut it into cubes or mince it coarsely. Fry slowly until brown. Pour off the rendered fat and serve the crackling with pap. The rendered fat may be substituted for cooking oil when sautéing onions and is excellent for seasoning a new cast-iron griddle pan.

Head

The head contains a large proportion of fat as well as edible parts such as the cheeks, tongue and ears.

Mince

Mince is economical, very versatile and quick to prepare. Neck, bolo, chuck, shin, thick flank and topside are the ideal cuts for mincing. Combine minced pork or lamb with ground beef for extra flavour.

Biltong

Biltong is strips of salted dried beef and it is synonymous with tradition. Although various forms of "biltong" are found in other countries, nowhere is it found in exactly the same form as we know it here. In the past farmers used a whole beef carcase for biltong but today the beef buttock, consisting of the silverside, topside and thick flank is normally used. The finest biltong is made from the eye muscles running down both sides of the backbone and which are cut whole from a side of beef. The most tender biltong is made from the fillet. Less tender cuts such as chuck can also be used, but the pieces of biltong will be small and much time will have to be spent on removing the connective tissue.

Cured and smoked

Theoretically every kind of meat can be cured, but pork has long been the prime candidate because this fine-textured meat responds so positively to curing. Almost the entire pork carcase can be cured or cured and smoked. The leg is normally used for hams, but other cuts such as the shoulder (shoulder ham) and thick rib (picnic ham) are also suitable. The rib, loin and belly may be used for bacon and the rib for Kasseler ribs while cured pork shank and trotters are ideal for soups and stews.

Smoked speck is used for larding and the skin can be added to soups and stews for extra flavour. Although lamb or mutton is not normally cured and smoked, traditional Soutribbetjie, made from the breast section, and Leipoldt ham (mock ham) are made with lamb. Cured brisket and silverside are more commonly known as corned beef, while cured beef covered with a highly spiced mixture available from spice merchants, is known as pastrami. Cured and smoked silverside is known as smoked beef and, unlike corned beef and pastrami which require further cooking after curing, is eaten raw, cut into paper-thin slices.

5. PROCESSING

Since deregulation of the South African red meat industry in 1993, a rapid growth in the number of registered abattoirs was experienced, namely from 330 in 1993 to 504 in 2001. Total slaughter capacity at registered abattoirs currently is estimated at 16 500 slaughter units per day (one slaughter unit either equals one head of cattle, or five pigs, or 15 head of sheep). It is also estimated that abattoirs nationally operate at about 60% capacity utilisation. During the regulated era the abattoir sector largely only offered a slaughter service.

Since deregulation, however, the focus has changed and today the abattoir sector fulfils an integrated wholesale function by sourcing animals on the hoof and directly selling carcases and meat cuts to the retail sector. To the abattoir When livestock are ready for the market, the animals are transported from the producer (farmer) to the abattoir. The animals must be transported in such a way that they are not injured, since this could cause bruising. Livestock are under stress when they are transported. Because of this, they are kept in before being slaughtered. During this period the animals calm down. Meat derived from an animal which has been slaughtered immediately after its arrival at the abattoir, will be tough. This is because of the stress during transportation. Before being slaughtered veterinarians examine the animals for any diseases.

Slaughtering and dressing

Meat goes through many operations before it hangs dressed in cold stores. Skilled workers perform these operations with great speed. The animals are stunned before they are slaughtered and dressed. After slaughtering the carcases are suspended from an overhead rail for the dressing operation, in which the hide and internal organs are removed. Further along the line various trimming procedures are performed. By the time it reaches the end of the chain the carcase is clean, "dressed" and ready for chilling and classification. After slaughtering and dressing, the carcases are inspected by a health inspector to make sure that it is fit for human consumption. Diseased carcases are destroyed or sterilised and turned into meat-meal and bone meal, which are used mainly for feeding livestock. In the case of the beef parasite known as "measles", carcases with a very light infestation are frozen at -10°C for ten days. This renders the cysts harmless and the meat fit for human consumption.

Classification

At abattoirs that participate in the voluntary classification system, the carcases are classified according to certain characteristics (see "Specifications & Classes). Roller marks, which tells the consumer more about the meat, are put onto the carcases. After classification, the carcases are bought by traders. The meat trader then sell it to the consumer in the meat market. The carcases are transported from the abattoir to the meat market by a refrigerator-truck. The carcases are hanged in large cold rooms at the meat market.

Processing of the carcase

A beef carcase is divided lengthwise because of its large size. Each half of the carcase is then divided into a forequarter and hindquarter. The retail dealer buys beef carcases from the wholesaler, in the form of forequarters and/or hindquarters. Pig, goat and lamb or sheep carcases are kept whole. These carcases are cut up in the meat market according to the consumer's choice.

6. USES

Meat is available in fresh, frozen, canned and cured forms. Fresh meat is raw meat. Frozen meat is also available and it has the same food value as fresh meat. Tinned meat has been sealed in a metal can and then heated. Meat is often canned with other ingredients, such as vegetables or gravy. Cured meat, such as ham, bacon, sausage and biltong has been treated with salt and/or sodium nitrate to control bacterial growth.

7. PURCHASING TIPS

Beef

Fresh beef can vary from bright red to cherry-red depending on the degree of exposure to oxygen. A dark plum-red appearance can be an indication that the meat comes from an older animal. The meat should be firm but not dry and should have a smooth and fine texture. The outer layer of fat should be firm and evenly distributed. An oily appearance can be an indication that the meat comes from an older animal.

Mutton and lamb

Good quality lamb is bright pink whereas mutton is slightly darker in colour. The meat of lamb and mutton should feel firm to the touch, have a smooth appearance and a fine texture. Lamb has a finer texture than mutton.

Pork

The meat of a young animal is greyish pink. Generally, the older the animal the darker the meat. The meat and fat should feel firm to the touch and not leave an impression when pressed with a finger. The fat is mostly white to creamy white. An oily appearance is indicative of an older animal.

Mince

Good quality mince has a cherry-red colour with a crumbly texture and should be free of any bits of connective tissue and excess fat.

What to buy

Buy economical substitutes like mock fillet or eye steak instead of the more expensive cuts such as the fillet, the rump, etc. Every carcase has only two fillets, therefore this cut is very expensive in comparison to, for instance, the sirloin. The fillet makes up a small percentage of the carcase which contributes to the expensiveness. Buy only classified red meat that has been inspected by health officers and slaughtered under controlled conditions in approved abattoirs. In terms of the classification system, the A and AB age group has tender meat whereas the B and C age groups have less tender but more tasty meat. Choose the A and AB age groups for the dry-heat cooking methods and the B and C age groups for the moist-heat cooking methods, for example stews, pot-roasts, etc.

Buy meat with a meat-to-fat ratio according to personal taste and health preferences. Maintain the cold chain as red meat is highly perishable and its shelf life is shortened dramatically if the chain is broken. Bear in mind the season and usage of specific species per season. It is normally cheaper to buy in bulk, for instance the hindquarter, buttock or 1O kg of mince or boerewors, than to buy on a daily or weekly basis. Get to know the meat cuts to ensure that you make more accurate and cost-effective decisions and utilise the lesser known cuts. Use bones and off-cuts to prepare stock or soups, or use to add flavour to vegetable dishes. Where and when to buy Shop around for best buys, specials and best value for money. Study advertisements regularly and critically. Shop according to family preference, the food budget, etc. Shop in your area so as to cut down on travelling costs. Avoid buying at the beginning or the end of the month or over festive and holiday seasons.

8. SPECIFICATIONS AND CLASSES

Uninformed persons usually don't know that there is a difference between grading and classification. In the South African classification system for red meat, carcases are classified b y each carcase being described, and each description has a definite meaning regarding carcase and meat quality characteristics. If carcases were graded, it would mean that one grade of meat was better than another one, which is untrue because all red meat is good.

With the Red Meat Classification System, buying meat is as easy as ABC. The system is especially designed to make the purchase of red meat as simple as possible for customers. The main characteristics used to classify beef, lamb, sheep and goat carcases are the age of the animal and the fatness of the carcase.

The age of these animals is determined by the number of permanent incisor teeth - the more permanent incisors, the older the animal. The age of an animal is an indication of the tenderness of the meat - the meat of younger animals is more tender than that of older animals. The age classes are known as

A = meaning the youngest animals;

AB = meaning older animals

B = meaning even older animals; and

C = meaning the oldest animals

The fatness classes are known as class zero (no fat) to class 6 (excessively over fat). The roller mark on a carcase includes the age class (AAA, ABAB, BBB or CCC) and the fatness class (000, 111, 222, 333, 444, 555 or 666). When referring to a class of carcase, both the age class and fatness class are said, written, read or supposed to be listened to e.g. A1, AB2, C3 etc.

The main characteristics used to classify pork carcases are the carcase mass, and the percentage meat in the carcase. The names of the classes of carcases of 21 to 90 kg, are known as P, O, R, C, U and S; class P being those with the highest percentage of meat and S being those with the lowest percentage of meat.

Each abattoir has a specific identity code which also appears in the roller mark. Consumers can therefore read in a roller mark on a carcase its class as related to carcase and eating quality characteristics and also be assured that the carcase originated from an approved abattoir and has passed a health inspection.

9. SAFETY

Muscle tissue in a healthy animal is practically sterile. In the post mortem handling, deboning and as a result of other processing steps, bacteria are deposited both on the surface and the interior tissue of the meat. Uncooked meat is an ideal medium for rapid bacterial growth, because it supplies the three necessary factors, including moisture, nutrients and an environment which are only slightly acidic. Micro-organisms may have severe adverse effects on certain quality characteristics of meat such as appearance (altering the acceptable colour) or palatability (producing off-odours in an advanced stage of spoilage). Temperature control is the single most important factor to prevent rapid bacterial growth.

There should be strict maintenance of the cold chain throughout the meat production chain and effective management of a well-designed sanitation programme should be applied at all links in the production chain. Temperature control is achieved mainly through refrigeration and freezing (i.e. the lowering of temperature), but micro-organisms can be controlled through the application of heat as well. Certain processes or handling practices by consumers in the home are essential in preventing food borne illness. These practices, which prevent or control the "dinner plate" microbial contamination associated with food borne illness, are under the direct control of the consumer, from food acquisition through disposal. They include purchasing, storing, pre-preparation, cooking, serving, and handling leftovers. Failure to take appropriate action at these critical points could result in food borne illness.

Purchasing

Purchase meat products last and keep packages of raw meat separate from other foods, particularly foods that will be eaten without further cooking. Make sure meat products -- whether raw, pre-packaged, or from the deli - are refrigerated when purchased. Take food straight home to the refrigerator. If travel time will exceed one hour, pack perishable foods in a cooler with ice and keep groceries and cooler in the passenger area of the car during warm weather.

Home storage

Verify the temperature of your refrigerator and freezer with an appliance thermometer -- refrigerators should run at 4°C or below; freezers at -18°C. At home, refrigerate or freeze meat immediately. To prevent raw juices from dripping on other foods in the refrigerator, use plastic bags or place meat on a plate. Wash hands with soap and water for 20 seconds before and after handling any raw meat products.

Pre-preparation

The importance of hand washing cannot be overemphasized. Wash hands (gloved or not) with soap and water for 20 seconds: before preparing food; after handling raw meat; after touching animals; after using the bathroom; after changing diapers; or after blowing the nose. Don't let juices from raw meat come in contact with cooked foods or foods that will be eaten raw, such as fruits or salad ingredients. Wash hands, counters, equipment, utensils, and cutting boards with soap and water immediately after use. Counters, equipment, utensils and cutting boards can be sanitized with a chlorine solution of 1 teaspoon liquid household bleach per quart of water. Let the solution stand on the board after washing, or follow the instructions on sanitizing products. Thaw meat in the refrigerator, never on the counter. Marinate foods in the refrigerator, never on the counter.

Cooking

Always cook thoroughly. If harmful bacteria are present, only thorough cooking will destroy them; freezing or rinsing the foods in cold water is not sufficient to destroy bacteria. Use a meat thermometer to determine if your meat or casserole has reached a safe internal temperature. Check the product in several spots to assure that a safe temperature has been reached and that harmful bacteria like Salmonella and certain strains of E. coli have been destroyed. Avoid interrupted cooking. Never refrigerate partially cooked products to later finish cooking on the grill or in the oven. Meat must be cooked thoroughly the first time and then they may be refrigerated and safely reheated later.

When microwaving foods, carefully follow manufacturer's instructions. Use microwave-safe containers, cover, rotate, and allow for the standing time, which contributes to thorough cooking.

Serving

Wash hands with soap and water before serving or eating food. Never put cooked food on a dish that has held raw products unless the dish is washed with soap and hot water. Never leave foods, raw or cooked, at room temperature longer than 2 hours. On a hot day this decreases to 1 hour.

Handling leftovers

Wash hands before and after handling leftovers. Use clean utensils and surfaces. Divide leftovers into small units and store in shallow containers for quick cooling. Refrigerate within 2 hours of cooking. Discard anything left out too long. Never taste food to determine if it is safe. When reheating leftovers, reheat thoroughly until hot and steamy.

10. STORAGE AND SHELF LIFE

Refrigeration and freezing

Refrigeration and freezing are two methods of preserving meat. For refrigeration, meat is stored at a temperature of O°C to 4°C and for freezing at -1 8°C. The colder the temperature, the slower the enzyme action and the growth and development of bacteria, hence the slower putrefaction rate. Thus meat can be stored longer by freezing than refrigeration. The nutritional value, appearance and taste of meat are retained by refrigeration and freezing, provided the meat is correctly packed and sealed and refrigerated at a constant temperature of O°C to 4°C or frozen at -1 8°C.

The storage times indicated are for meat which has been correctly packed and sealed airtight. If the temperature is higher than the given temperatures, the meat should be stored for shorter periods. The storage times for meat vary according to the total exposed surfaces of the meat.

Storage of mince

Mince can be frozen for only 3 months, cubed beef for 6 months and a whole leg of lamb for 9 months. The temperature of the freezing compartment in a household refrigerator is higher than -18°C and fluctuates because the refrigerator is used daily. For this reason the freezing compartment of a refrigerator is used just to keep frozen meat frozen and not to freeze meat. Mince goes off easily and can only be kept in the refrigerator for two to three days. Unwrap the mince and cover it lightly with waxed paper to prevent it from drying out. Freeze mince in family-sized portions in airtight containers. To ensure rapid freezing as well as thawing and to save freezer space, use flat square containers.

Freezing times for mince:

Raw minced beef (lean):

6 months Raw minced pork: (2 months)

Raw minced mutton:

2 to 3 months Freeze raw mince without any additions as certain ingredients such as garlic, breadcrumbs and herbs may undergo unpleasant flavour changes during the freezing process.

Dehydration

The preservative effects of dehydration are due to the reduction of water activity to such a low level that microbial growth is inhibited. Dehydrated meat products are stable without refrigeration. Products such as dry and semi-dry sausages, are partially dried, usually in air, during the ageing process. Since they are also fermented sausages, the acidity developed during ageing provides some additional preservative action. In South Africa, biltong is a good example of air-dried dehydrated meat.

Storage of biltong

Beef biltong is at its best when the inside is soft, most and red in colour, with a hard brown outer layer. To keep it from drying out further, wrap the biltong in cling wrap, squeeze out all the air, and deep-freeze it indefinitely. Thaw biltong overnight in the refrigerator, and then at room temperature for1 hour. If you prefer dry biltong, store it in a cool, dry place where it can be kept for many years (the fat may go rancid with time but the meat will keep). Dry biltong can also be stored in a muslin bag, which allows free air circulation. Never store dry biltong in plastic. Freeze grate biltong in plastic bags or airtight plastic containers but remember to bring it to room temperature before serving - biltong has very little taste if it is too cold.

Curing and Smoking

Curing is one of the oldest and most effective methods of preserving meat. Smoking and drying are methods of preservation as well, which are often used in conjunction with curing. Smoking is a method of preserving the meat and gives a unique flavour to it. Therefore "soutribbetjie" (salted rib) is only cured, while ham is cured and smoked. For curing at home a commercially prepared curing mixture could be used or curing mixture consisting of salt, saltpetre, sugar, bicarbonate of soda and an assortment of spices could be used. Meat can be cured either by a wet or dry curing method.

The cured and smoked meat, wrapped in muslin , can be stored in a refrigerator for approximately 3 weeks at 0°C to 4°C. If the meat is packed airtight, it can be stored in the deep freeze for approximately one month at -1°C. The longer the freezing period the more salty the meat will taste. Thermal processing Heat processing is used to minimise spoilage and potentially toxic micro-organisms in meat and meat products as well as to inactivate enzymes that could cause deterioration. Two general levels of heat processing are employed in meat preservation namely pasteurisation and sterilisation.

Pasteurisation is a moderate heating process, where the product reaches temperatures of 58 - 75°C and it is utilised in the cooking of most manufactured meat items. The shelf life of manufactured meat products is extended by this process, but they must still be stored under refrigeration after being processed. Sterilisation is a more severe heating process, generally to temperatures above 100°C and it is used to prepare "commercially sterile" meat products. This process is used in the processing of canned meat, which is stable at room temperature for one or more years.

11. PACKAGING

The most popular form of retail packaging of fresh or frozen meat is FIVC wrapping with foam trays. The PVC protects the meat against moisture loss, but has some oxygen permeability so it allows the meat to stay red and fresh looking. Many of the meat trays also contain absorbent pads made from paper with a plastic liner to absorb liquid from the meat. However, oxygen hastens both the chemical breakdown and microbial spoilage of many foods. To help preserve meat longer, many retailers make use of vacuum packing which is based on the exclusion of oxygen and careful temperature control.

Oxygen cannot penetrate the plastic which is used and all air is expressed in the packaging process. In the absence of oxygen the growth of certain bacteria is inhibited. Therefore vacuum packed meat can be refrigerated for a longer time than meat stored open in the refrigerator. All oxygen should be expressed, the meat packed hygienically, the wrapping not damaged and the temperature well controlled. If these rules are followed, vacuum packed meat can be stored for up to two weeks at 0 to 4°C. Vacuum packed meat has a purplish red colour and a slightly unpleasant smell is noticed when the package is opened. On exposure to air, however, the meat regains its healthy red colour and the smell disappears. Processed products require more sophisticated and extensive packaging than fresh meat because they will be stored at higher temperatures for longer periods than refrigerated products.

12. RELIGIOUS CONSIDERATIONS

Jewish Kosher Foods

Jewish dietary laws mandate strict adherence to separating dairy and meat in the kitchen. Dairy products aren't allowed in meat meals or served with them. A period of time is observed between dairy and meat meals (4-6 hours). Many kosher households have two kitchen areas, one for meat and other for diary. Acceptable foods are slain animals with cloven hooves (only cud chewers) and chicken. All kosher animals must be slaughtered in the ritual manner of throat-slitting while the animal is alive and prepared under rabbinical supervision. Beef, lamb, liver and sweetbreads are allowed, while pork sausages and cured meats are forbidden.

Muslim Foods

Muslim food preparation is governed according to Halal laws found in the Koran of Islam. There are many rules and restrictions according to what is allowed and when. But essentially, any food product coming from pig's meat, such as pork, ham or bacon is forbidden. Lamb and beef are acceptable if slaughtered according to specific Halal methods.

Hindu Foods

Practitioners of the Hindu religion are either non-vegetarian Hindus or strict vegetarians. Both groups refrain from eating beef and pork. All beef and beef products, veal lamb pork and animal fats are forbidden in the Hindu religion.

Buddhist Foods

For the Buddhist vegetarian, vegetable-based food is ideal for health, spiritual growth and environmental welfare. Buddhists regard all living creatures with equal respect and mercy since everything is reincarnated and one may not wish to risk eating one's ancient kin, or worse, consume the living memory stored within the flesh of the recent deceased. Lord Buddha says that meat eating, "in any form, is not permitted to anyone". Regionally, the Buddha's dietary practices vary from Korea, Tibet, China and Japan. Tibetan Buddhists tend to be vegan, while Korean Buddhists may sample forbidden pork. All beef and beef products, veal, lamb pork and animal fats are forbidden. Orthodox Catholic Foods In early spring, during the season of Lent, Catholics give up eating meat. In addition to the Lent fast, some conservative Catholics go without red meat and poultry on Fridays, having just fish with vegetables.

7th-Day Adventist Foods

Seventh-Day Adventists are generally lacto-ovo vegetarian Christians who've given up meat. The main reason why 7th Day Adventists go without meat is because they regard the body as a temple of God's creation.

13. HEALTH AND NUTRITIONAL HIGHLIGHTS

Red meat with little fat offers you excellent nutritional value. Nutritionists refer to it as a nutrient-dense food. This term refers to the large number of nutritives a food contains compared with its relatively low kilojoule value. The development of new feeding methods and breeding techniques for animals has produced a product which is relatively low in kilojoules, fat and cholesterol. Red meat forms part of a balanced diet and provides optimal value in combination with a variety of starchy foods, fruits and vegetables.

Protein

Every human body requires protein since protein constitutes the body's building material. Some proteins are of a high quality and are called complete proteins since they contain all the amino-acids which are essential for building and maintaining the body. These particular proteins occur only in foods of animal origin, of which red meat is a very rich source. These proteins are indispensable to growing children and adolescents. Adults and the aged likewise cannot do without it since all body tissues constantly need to be replaced. Even hormones - which regulate all body processes - are dependent on proteins.

A moderate portion of red meat supplies your body with all these benefits. A 100 g portion of red meat per day supplies 67% of the daily protein requirements for women of between 23 and 50 years.

Carbohydrates and Vitamins

Red meat does not supply carbohydrates but does provide a broad spectrum of B vitamins which are indispensable to carbohydrate metabolism. Water-soluble vitamins in red meat 100 g cooked red meat supplies (edible mass): Vit B1 (Thiamine) 0,08 mg Vit B2 (Riboflavin) 0,22 mg Vit B3 (Niacin) 5,30 mg Vit B6 (Pyridoxine) 0,33 mg Vit B12 (Cobalamin) 2,00 meg Folic acid 17,00 mg The functions of the B vitamins are legion. They are responsible for a normal nervous system, energy production, healthy mucous membranes and many other functions. It is important to realise that in cobalamin (vitamin B12) occurs only in food of animal origin. Fat-soluble vitamins in red meat Red meat is a source of fat-soluble vitamins, Vit A, D and E. Vitamin A is of specific importance for normal sight, particularly night sight.

Red meat supplies the body directly with vitamin A. Vitamin D supports calcium and phosphorus in the process of forming healthy bone and teeth. Vitamin E plays a protective role by maintaining the cell membranes of the body. Minerals in red meat 100 g cooked red meat supplies (edible mass): Iron 3,7 mg Zinc 5,5 mg Phosphorus 248,0 mg Magnesium 22,0 mg Potassium 370,0 mg Copper 0,2 mg Iron Red meat is rich in minerals. Pregnant women, children and adolescents frequently suffer from an iron deficiency. The form in which iron occurs in red meat is special in that it can be utilised most effectively by the body. It also promotes better assimilation of iron from less available sources of iron, such as foods of vegetable origin. Organ meats are nature's richest sources of iron.

Phosphorus, calcium and magnesium

Minerals frequently work in conjunction in performing their function. A good example of this is phosphorus, magnesium and calcium. These three minerals are most important for the formation of strong and healthy bones and teeth. Magnesium also plays a role in protein synthesis. Red meat is an excellent source of both phosphorus and magnesium, whilst dairy products contain the most calcium that the body requires.

Potassium

Potassium represents approximately five per cent of the body's mineral content. This mineral occurs abundantly in red meat. A deficiency of potassium will upset the body's acid-alkaline balance.

Zinc

Red meat is perhaps one of nature's best sources of zinc. It is particularly important to children and adolescents since it is responsible for normal growth and development. Zinc is also involved in functions such as wound healing and maintaining normal digestion and appetite.

Copper

Copper occurs in the red blood cells of the body. It also forms part of the reproductive substances (DNA and RNA) in the body. Since red meat also contains this mineral, it is indispensable in the diet. From the above-mentioned data it is clear that red meat forms and important link in a healthy diet. Thus the inclusion of a moderate portion of red meat in the daily diet serves to supply the body with a host of nutrients, thereby contributing to a healthy individual.

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14. MEDICAL CONDITION ALERTS

Fat

There is much controversy about the role of fat in coronary heart disease. Although red meat contains fat, a large proportion is visible and can be trimmed off without much difficulty. The fat in red meat is, like most fats in nature, a combination of saturated, polyunsaturated and mono-unsaturated fatty acids in varying amounts. Red meat, however, contains less than 50% saturated fatty acids - while the rest is mono- and polyunsaturated. By keeping servings moderate and by trimming off excess fat, only nutritious muscle fibre is retained without increasing fat consumption unnecessarily.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a substance which is both manufactured and absorbed by the body. Red meat is not excessively rich in cholesterol. Thus a 100-g portion of boneless cooked red meat seldom contains more than 80 to 1 1 mg cholesterol whereas the recommended cholesterol intake is 300 mg per day. A moderate portion of red meat therefore contains well below the recommended amount of cholesterol.

15. LIFESTYLE SERVINGS AND EATING SUGGESTIONS

Thawing

The thawing of frozen meat influences the quality of the meat. Meat cooked in a frozen state is less juicy than meat thawed correctly in advance. This applies particularly to large cuts such as leg of lamb. Meat is best when thawed in the original wrapping in the refrigerator. This is a slow method but has the advantage that the meat juices are reabsorbed, producing a juicier end product. Thawing in the refrigerator: 8 to 9 hours per 500 g for large cuts, e.g. leg of lamb; 3 to 4 hours per 500 g for small cuts, e.g. mince.

Meat preferably should not be thawed at room temperature, in warm water or in the sun since this results in a considerable loss of meat juices. Use the microwave to thaw meat at short notice.

Large cuts- ten minutes per 500 g at 10% to 30% power, e.g. leg of lamb.

Small cuts: Five minutes per 5OOg at 1O% to 3O% power, e.g. chops.

Meat thawed in the microwave oven should be removed from the wrapping and thawed uncovered on a plate or in a dish. If the meat is kept in the wrapping, the meat will sweat and the upper layer of meat will start to cook. During thawing in the microwave oven the small cuts such as mince, sausages, steaks and chops should be turned every two minutes. The outer portions which have thawed already should be removed to allow the rest of the meat to thaw evenly. If the meat is left in a solid piece the outer portions will start to cook.

Chops or steaks should be arranged with the thickest part on the outside and the bones pointing towards the centre. Cover the bone ends for half the thawing time to prevent the ends from becoming cooked. Large meat cuts such as leg of lamb should be thawed on a rack or inverted saucer. A large cut thawed on a plate will start cooking on the underside in the liquid dripping from the meat. Meat thawed in the microwave should be left at room temperature for the same length of time it was in the microwave. For instance, mince thawed for 10 minutes should stand at room temperature for 10 minutes.

Cooking of red meat

Correct methods improve the appearance, aroma and flavour of meat. Cooking methods suitable for meat are classified into two main categories, i.e. moist-heat and dry-heat cooking methods. The moist-heat cooking methods are stewing, boiling, braising, pot-roasting and cooking in a casserole., cooking bag or aluminium foil. Oven-roasting, oven-grilling, pan-grilling, grilling over the coals, shallow-fat and deep-fat frying and stir-fry are dry-heat cooking methods. Moist-heat cooking methods These methods are used for cuts with a high proportion of white connective tissue. The moisture and long, slow cooking process converts the connective tissue into gelatine and this process tenders the meat. Liquid such as meat stock, fruit juice, wine, beer etc is used for stews - not water, since it does not contribute to the flavour or nutritional value of the dish.

Cold liquid added to warm, browned meat causes the extraction of meat juices, hence the liquid should be heated before being added to the meat. Meat is browned beforehand for various reasons- to improve the appearance, render the flavour more acceptable and to seal the outer layer of the meat in order to reduce the loss of meat juices.

1 . Stewing: (cubes, portions, strips or chops) Brown the meat in heated butter/cooking oil. Add a small quantity of HEATED liquid. Simmer slowly with a tight-fitting lid over low heat until the meat is tender and cooked.

2. Braising: (chops or slices) Brown the meat in heated butter/cooking oil. Spoon the meat onto a layer of saut6ed vegetables. Add very little HEATED liquid and simmer with a tight-fitting lid over low heat until the meat is tender and cooked.

3. Pot-roasting: (a whole meat cut weighing more than 1,5 kg) Tie the meat with a string to retain its shape. Brown the meat in heated butter/cooking oil. Add very little HEATED liquid and simmer with a tight-fitting lid over low heat until the meat is tender and cooked.

4. Casseroling: (cubes, portions, chops, strips or a cut weighing more than 1,5 kg) Brown the meat in heated butter/cooking oil. Add very little HEATED liquid. Place the meat in an oven dish with a lid and bake in a preheated oven at 160"C for 40 to 45 minutes per 500 g plus 40 minutes extra.

5. Cooking bag: (a whole meat cut weighing more than 1,5 kg) Mix the seasoning with a little liquid. Pour it over the meat in a cooking bag. Tie the bag and pierce a hole in the top to allow the steam to escape. Cook the meat in a preheated oven at 160'C for 40 to 45 minutes per 500 g plus 40 minutes extra.

6. Aluminium foil: (a whole meat cut weighing more than 1,5 kg) Rub the seasoning into the meat. Place the meat on the shiny side of the aluminium foil. Wrap the meat securely but not too tightly in the foil. Bake the meat in the oven at 160"C for 40 to 45 minutes per 500 g plus 40 minutes extra. Open the aluminium foil for the last 30 minutes to allow the meat to brown.

7. Boiling: (only for cured meat and meat stock) Cover the meat with cold water. Bring it to boil and simmer it slowly until cooked. Dry-beat cooking methods No extra liquid is added. Meat is cooked by means of direct exposure to heat or the circulation of hot air. These methods are suitable for tender, ripened meat cuts such as the loin and chump. Medium done is recommended for all meat dishes since well-done meat tends to be dry.

8. Oven-roasting (a whole meat cut weighing more than 1,5 kg) Place the meat uncovered with the fat side uppermost on the rack of an oven-roasting pan. Roast in a preheated oven at 160°C for: Medium done: 20 to 25 minutes per 500 g plus 20 minutes extra Well-done- 25 to 30 g per 500 g plus 25 minutes extra The extra time makes allowance for temperature variations since the oven heat does not remain constant. Allow the meat to rest in the warming drawer for 1 0 minutes to facilitate carving and for re-absorption of the meat juices.

9. Grilling: (chops, sausage, kebabs and sosaties) Slash the fat edges at 25-mm intervals to prevent curling during grilling.

Oven-grilling:

Preheat the top oven element until red hot. Place the meat uncovered on the rack of an oven-roasting pan. Grill the meat 100 mm below the oven grill as follows-. Medium done: 7 to 10 minutes in total Well done: 10 to 12 minutes in total Keep the oven door 10 cm ajar to allow the steam to escape.

Pan-grilling:

Preheat a griddle pan without fat or oil until smoking hot. Place the meat in the pan. Do not pull the meat away from the pan since this damages the meat fibres and causes loss of meat juices. Grill the steaks for the same time as for oven grilling, until they come loose of their own accord. Sausage is placed on the stove in a cold griddle pan. Set the heat at medium until the sausage begins to hiss and then turn the heat down to low.

Grilling over the coals:

The meat is grilled over moderate coals for the same time as for oven-grilling.

1. Deep and shallow-fat frying (leftover meat or thin slices) Heat oil 3 mm deep for shallow-fat frying and I 00 mm deep for deep-fat frying. Protect the meat with batter or an egg and crumb coating. Fry the meat until golden brown, then place it on kitchen paper to absorb excess oil.

Offal

To prepare liver

Rinse liver under cold water and remove the outer membrane. If the liver is fresh, the membrane will slip off easily, otherwise soak the liver in lukewarm water for a few minutes. Remove all the large tubes as well. To tone down the strong flavour of ox liver, it may be soaked for one hour in milk or a weak solution of water and salt.

To prepare kidneys

If the kidneys are encased in fat, remove it and then peel off the outer membrane. If the kidneys are fresh, the membrane will slip off easily, otherwise soak them in lukewarm salted water or milk. Remove the inner cores and cut kidneys into cubes or strips before cooking. Because lamb and pig's kidneys are so small, they are usually only cut in half.

To prepare tongue

Place tongue in a large saucepan and cover with cold water. For extra flavour, add bouquet garni and vegetables such as carrots, onions or shallots and celery stalks. Bring to the boil, cover with lid, reduce heat and simmer for 3 to 4 hours or until tender. Dip the tongue into cold water immediately and remove skin and tubes. The tongue will be juicer and taster if allowed to cool in the cooking liquid before serving it cold and sliced.

To prepare sweetbreads

Rinse thoroughly under cold water, then soak for I to 2 hours in a weak solution of water and salt. Blanch the sweetbreads by placing them in cold water, bringing to the boil and simmering for about 1 minute. Remove the skin and outer membrane before cooking using any of the following cooking methods:

Poaching:

After blanching and removing the skin and outer membrane, cover the sweetbreads with cold water. Add 5 ml salt, 15 ml vinegar or lemon juice or any seasoning of your choice such as bay-leaf, peppercorn or sprig of parsley. Bring to the boil, cover with a lid, reduce the heat and simmer for approximately 15 minutes.

Stewing:

After blanching and removing the skin and outer membrane, cut the sweetbreads into bit-sized portions. Roll them in cake flour seasoned with salt and pepper or breadcrumbs and brown in heated cooking oil or a mixture of cooking oil and butter. Add a little heated liquid. Cover with a lid, reduce the heat and simmer for approximately 15 minutes. To prepare brains Soak them in cold salted water for 30 minutes. Remove the membrane and soak the brains again in lukewarm salted water to remove all traces of blood. Use as required.

To prepare caul fat

It is only necessary to rinse it thoroughly in lukewarm salted water.

To prepare tripe

Rinse it thoroughly in cold water, then soak it in warm water containing IO ml lime per litre of water. Rinse it again thoroughly in cold water, then scrape it clean with a blunt knife until it is white. Rinse again thoroughly in cold water and cut as preferred. To cook, cover tripe with cold water containing 5 ml salt and 15 ml lemon juice per litre of water. Bring to the boil, cover with a lid, reduce heat and simmer for 2 to 3 hours or until tender.

To prepare oxtail

Remove all visible fat. Cut tail into pieces between the joints. Rinse thoroughly under running water. Use in stews. To prepare trotters cow heels Immerse trotters in hot lime water (1O ml lime per litre of water), then remove the casings from the trotters and scrape the rest clean. Rinse in clean cold water. Make an incision between the trotters right against the one side up to the first joint. Remove the trotter gland in one piece. Cut the trotters open at the first joint, chop or saw the shin bones in half and rinse thoroughly.

To prepare the head

Rinse head in clean cold water. Cut the lower jaw loose from the upper jaw and remove the lower jawbone. Make an incision through the skin from the base to the point of the nose and cut the skin away from the bone of the nose. Use either of the following methods to remove the upper jaw and nose bones:

a) Saw an inverted V-shape above the cheekbones with the apex high between the eyes. The brains can be left in the skull and may be spooned out after cooking;

b) Saw through the skull right between the eyes and obliquely downwards below the eyes in order to remove the bones. The brains may now be removed and used as preferred.

Remove all glands (below the ears, centre and lower jaw and tongue), giving special attention to the tongue, throat, ears and eyes where undesirable accretions may occur. Rinse head again.

Mince

Minced beef tends to be dry. Combine two-thirds minced beef with one-third minced pork, lamb or veal for added flavour and to improve the texture and juiciness of the mince.

To keep the consistency of the minced meat light, mix ingredients gently using two forks.

Coarsely minced meat is suitable for meat balls and pasta dishes, whereas finely minced meat should be used for terrines, meat loaves and stuffings.

Cold minced meat dishes require more seasoning than hot dishes.

Do not discard juices that collect around meat balls or a baked meat loaf as this will dry them out. Leave the meat loaf or balls in the meat juices to cool so that the juices can be reabsorbed.

Add the following to meat balls

Replace breadcrumbs with grated apple or carrot, chopped dried fruit or chopped nuts; Use fresh or dried herbs and parsley in meat balls; Replace vinegar with white wine. Apart from baking, meat balls may also be fried or simmered in liquid or grilled on a skewer over the coals or under a pre-heated element. If meat balls are being fried, cover them with a batter of beaten egg and breadcrumbs. Do not fry meat balls in very hot oil or cook them for too long as the meat will dry out. Ten minutes for frying and 20 to 30 minutes for baking is usually sufficient.

How to keep a serving of red meat low in fat

Choose red meat with little visible fat. Trim all visible fat to a thickness of 3 mm or less before cooking the meat.

Use as little cooking oil and fat as possible during the cooking process. Non-stick cookware and sprays are available which make the addition of fat unnecessary.

Limit deep- and shallow-frying because these methods load fat and kilojoules unnecessarily.

Heated liquids used in red meat dishes should add to the nutritional value and taste of the dish but should not add too many additional kilojoules. Use liquids such as fruit juices, meat stock and vegetable purses for interesting variations.

Add a variety of vegetables to red meat stews and braises.

The recommended proportion of vegetables to red meat is two to one.

Make use of dried or fresh fruit to create exotic red meat dishes. Not only is this a wonderful way of adding colour, but it also increases the nutritional value of the dish.

Reap all the nutritional wealth from red meat by including a moderate, cooked serving of 115 g in your eating plan two to three times a week.

Limit the use of seasonings that contain sodium, such as table salt. A better alternative is fresh or dried herbs because they do not increase the sodium intake unnecessarily.

Cream and sour cream have a high fat content and can be substituted in sauces and soups by low-fat yoghurt and cottage cheese. It is important, however, not to allow the yoghurt or cottage cheese to come to a boil as it will curdle and spoil the appearance of the dish.

Use low-fat cheeses such as Edam and Mozzarella. Skimmed milk can successfully replace whole milk.

When deciding on a starch to accompany a red meat dish, it is advisable to concentrate on high-fibre products such as brown rice, whole-wheat bread, cracked wheat and samp rather than their refined equivalents.

The use of cooking oil or fat is unnecessary when browning meat which has enough fat of its own.

After browning meat and sautéing vegetables, excess fat can be discarded before adding the liquid.

Leave bredies and stews to cool after cooking, then skim off the excess fat that accumulates on top.

Once visible fat has been trimmed, pork contains only 1,5% intramuscular fat. This makes pork and ideal food for slimmers.

Grill schnitzels under a pre-heated element instead of shallow-frying.

Acknowledgment to http://www.samic.co.za for content